A January 2019 study1 wanted to analyse how a specific number of postprandial (after eating) physiological indicators were affected in three different population groups by tucking in to either a typical processed-meat cheeseburger meal (CB) or a tofu burger meal (TB).
Study method
The three population groups were 20 each of:
men with type 2 diabetes (T2D)
obese men (OM)
healthy men (HM)
The two meals were matched in terms of energy and macronutrients:
The health indicators being tested were gastrointestinal hormones involved in the regulation of glucose metabolism and satiety (the feeling of feeling ‘full’ from eating food).
Glucose metabolism (how the body was responding to the meal) was assessed at 0, 30, 60, 120 and 180 minutes after the meal via an analysis of each participant’s blood plasma, to check levels of the following hormones:
satiety (the feeling of fullness itself) was assessed through what’s called a ‘visual analogue scale‘ 5
Study findings
After eating the tofu burger meal (when compared with the cheeseburger meal):
GLP-1 increased in T2D and HM
amylin increased in all groups
PYY increased only in HM
satiety increased in all groups
Charts showing postprandial results for GLP-1, amylin, PYY and satiety.
So what?
Well, this shows there’s a greater increase in glucose metabolising gut hormones and satiety following the consumption of a single plant-based meal with tofu when compared with an energy- and macronutrient-matched processed-meat meat and cheese meal. And what’s more, this happens in all three groups: diabetic, obese and healthy men.
By feeling more satiated, people eat less. By eating less, they avoid piling on extra weight as a result of foods (particularly processed, fatty, animal-based, salty, and sweet foods) ‘fooling’ the body into thinking it needs to consume more. The body treats plant-foods differently from processed and animal foods, releasing different hormones from the gut and affecting the brain differently (partly through satiety signalling).
Study discussion
The following points were raised within this study:
improving dietary choices represents a primary prevention tool 78
the influence of diet in the development of insulin resistance, prediabetes, and type 2 diabetes is well-established 91011
gastrointestinal hormones are known to be involved in the regulation of glucose metabolism, energy homeostasis, satiety, and weight management 12
ingestion of food triggers secretion of the incretin hormone GLP-1 from the gastrointestinal tract, which enhances insulin secretion and helps maintain glucose homeostasis 13
the satiety hormones GLP-1 [9], peptide YY (PYY) [10], pancreatic polypeptide (PP) [11] and amylin [12] regulate appetite and energy homeostasis
the release of the satiety hormones GLP-1, PYY and amylin can depend on meal composition and differs between impaired and normal glycaemic status 14
consumption of red meat is associated (and the consumption of processed meat is very strongly associated) with risk of type 2 diabetes 1516
consuming anyprocessed meats increases (by 33%) the risk of developing diabetes 17
saturated fatty acids from meat and other animal products impairs insulin resistance and glucose tolerance 189 , and increases the risk of cardiovascular disease 19
following plant-based diets (vegetarian) reduces risk of diabetes by 50% 20
insulin sensitivity and glycaemic control in type 2 diabetics improves on a plant-based diet2122
Study conclusion
“Our findings indicate that plant-based meals with tofu may be an effective tool to increase postprandial secretion of gastrointestinal hormones, as well as promote satiety, compared to processed meat and cheese, in healthy, obese, and diabetic men. These positive properties may have practical implications for the prevention of type 2 diabetes.”
Final thoughts
The interesting subject of satiety has been covered previously, when we looked at the threemechanisms of satiety23 .
The study covered in this blog is, of course, just of the many research projects which look at how plant-food compares with animal-food. If you’ve read some of the previous blogs on diabetes2425262728293031 and obesity3233 , you’ll already know that there’s a mountain of evidence that plant-based meals not only prevent, but also reverse these and many other non-communicable diseases.
The take-home message?
Ditch McDonald’s and get stuck into plant-based foods if, that is, you want optimal health and longevity. Your choice…
…if, that is, you’re lucky enough to be in a family or live in a society where there is any real choice.
Glucagon-like peptide-1 is a 30 amino acid long peptide hormone. GLP-1 is an incretin; thus, it has the ability to decrease blood sugar levels in a glucose-dependent manner by enhancing the secretion of insulin. Peripherally, GLP-1 is known to affect gut motility, inhibit gastric acid secretion, and inhibit glucagon secretion. In the central nervous system, GLP-1 induces satiety, leading to reduced weight gain. In the pancreas, GLP-1 is now known to induce expansion of insulin-secreting β-cell mass, in addition to its most well-characterised effect: the augmentation of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion. [↩]
Amylin is a peptide hormone secreted along with insulin from the pancreatic β-cells. It plays a role in glycaemic regulation by slowing gastric emptying and promoting satiety, thereby preventing postprandial spikes in blood glucose levels. peptide hormone that slows digestion. When carbohydrates stay in the stomach longer, they are converted to glucose and enter the bloodstream in a slower, more gradual manner. It helps to block glucagon secretion. Glucagon is a pancreatic hormone that raises the blood glucose level by stimulating the liver to release stored glucose. Without amylin, most people with diabetes produce extra glucagon when they eat; this can contribute to after-meal blood glucose spikes. By enhancing satiety, amylin helps to limit appetite and thus reduce the amount of food eaten during (and between) meals. [↩]
Peptide YY s a hormone secreted from endocrine cells called L-cells in the small intestine. It’s secreted alongside the hormone glucagon-like peptide 1. It’s released after eating, circulates in the blood and works by binding to receptors in the brain. Binding of peptide YY to brain receptors decreases appetite and makes people feel full after eating. It also acts in the stomach and intestine to slow down the movement of food through the digestive tract. [↩]
The visual analogue scale or visual analogue scale is a psychometric response scale which can be used in questionnaires. It is a measurement instrument for subjective characteristics or attitudes that cannot be directly measured. The following is a typical example: [↩]
A September 2018 16-week randomised controlled clinical trial by the Physician’s Committee for Responsible Medicine1 looked at whether a plant-based high-carbohydrate, low-fat diet in overweight individuals would have a more beneficial effect on body weight, body composition and insulin resistance when compared with a standard Western diet. Controversy in the media is rife about whether or not a carbohydrate-rich diet is healthy, so will this research study help settle the argument once and for all?
Study method
75 participants were randomised to follow either a plant-based high-carbohydrate, low-fat (vegan) diet or to maintain their current diet.
The intervention group was asked to follow a low-fat vegan diet consisting of vegetables, grains, legumes, and fruits, and avoiding animal products and added oils. There were no limits on energy or carbohydrate intake. The control group participants were asked to maintain their current diets, which included meat and dairy products, for the 16-week intervention period.
All study participants were asked not to alter their physical activity and to continue their preexisting medication regimens for the duration of the study, except as modified by their personal physicians.
Measurements were taken before and at the end of the trial.
Study results
The results can be seen in the charts below.
So, in the vegan group:
fat mass reduced
insulin resistance significantly reduced
and these results remained significant after adjustment for energy intake
The more total and insoluble fibre consumed, the greater the drop in the following:
BMI
fat mass
volume of visceral fat
again, these results remained significant even after adjustment for energy intake
Increased consumption of carbohydrate and fibre, as part of a plant-based high-carbohydrate, low-fat diet, were associated with beneficial effects on the following:
weight
body composition
insulin resistance
Discussion
Obesity – a pandemic?
Percent of Adults with BMI ≥30. Source: WHO, Global Database on Body Mass Index.
The World Health Organisation estimates that more than 1.9 billion adults worldwide have excess body weight 23 . Hence, obesity rates are rising rapidly. Since increased body weight is associated with a higher all-cause mortality 4 , it’s vital that sustainable and practical solutions are found.
Causes of obesity
It’s pretty obvious to anyone who does a little research: poor dietary habits (such as high intakes of processed meat products and sodium with low intakes of fruits and vegetables) are one of the leading contributors. This single avoidable behavioural factor contributes to huge numbers of deaths through a range of chronic diseases – including around half of cardio-metabolic deaths in the United States alone 356 .
Solutions to obesity
In contrast to the above, plant-based diets have been shown repeatedly to represent an effective strategy for improving nutrient intake 7 , being clearly associated with decreased all-cause mortality and decreased risk of obesity, type 2 diabetes, and coronary heart disease8 .
The following dietary elements of a plant-based diet have been shown to have independent advantages for weight loss and weight management:
Above, I asked whether this study would settle once and for all the question of whether or not a carbohydrate-rich diet is healthy. As long as the carbohydrates are what’s found in wholefood plants and not in processed junk food, it appears to me that this, as well as many other studies mentioned above, do indeed favour a positive answer to this question.
Naturally, however, the industries benefiting from producing, advertising and selling processed junk foods and animal products will continue in their attempts to deny/ignore/marginalise the facts with the aim of confusing the public. That, unfortunately, is the way business is done. But each of us can take responsibility for what foods we consume, and thus exert complete dietary control to help ourselves avoid so many chronic diet-related diseases.
A September 2018 review1 , by Daniel L Rosenfeld from Cornell University Department of Development 2 , looked at the advances and possible future directions of research into the interesting subject of the psychology of vegetarians.
Daniel L Rosenfeld, Cornell University
I bet it’s not something you thought there would be much written about – and you’d be wrong (see huge list of books and publications at end of blog). So, assuming that plant-eaters are not all simply bonkers for giving up bacon sandwiches and succulent southern fried chicken, what does research tell us about those who are often regarded as preferring to eat “rabbit food“?
Main topics
Rosenfeld refers to a 2012 review3 which highlighted seven main topics that are covered when looking into this field:
dietary variations of vegetarianism
vegetarians’ motivations
attitudes toward meat
vegetarians’ and omnivores’ values and worldviews
differences between vegetarians’ and omnivores’ well-beings
perceptions of vegetarians and omnivores
links between gender, vegetarianism, and meat consumption
It was pointed out that there’s a lot of subjectivity when discussing vegetarians since there’s no generally-accepted definition of what one is! Additionally, confusion can be caused because some people call themselves vegetarians when they actually eat meat on occasion, and vegetarians vary substantially in terms of which animal products they will or will not eat.
Motivation
There’s also variation in the motivations that vegetarians have for their dietary choices. These generally include:
personal health
concerns about animal cruelty
concerns about the environment
religion
taste (e.g. “I avoid meat because it disgusts me.“)
Worldview
The latter research 3 also mentions that there are differences between vegetarians’ and omnivores’ values and worldviews. Compared with omnivores, vegetarians tend to be:
more politically liberal
more empathetic
more opposed to capital punishment
And further differences exist between vegetarians and vegans, with vegans exhibiting stronger beliefs about:
meat consumption
animal welfare
environmental issues
Gender
The review 3 also looked at differences between women’s and men’s vegetarian views. Men generally seem to differ from women in the following ways:
men view meat as a more essential part of a proper diet
men eat more meat than women
men express fewer concerns about the effects of meat consumption on animals
men express fewer concerns about the effects of meat consumption on the environment
This is consistent with the fact that women are more likely to be vegetarian than are men.
Research explosion
Since the above-mentioned 2012 review by Ruby, there’s been an explosion of research into the psychology of vegetarianism. And while the general areas of research fit within the above 7 groupings, there’s been a widening and deepening of the analysis. So, for instance, regarding the differences in political outlooks and worldviews between omnivores and vegetarians, a lot more detail is now known about more specific variations in attitude.
This can be seen in the differences between veganism and other forms of vegetarianism. A 2017 study4 found that vegans were approximately 15 times more likely to be politically liberal than conservative.
Furthermore, recent research 56 into the relationship between meat consumption and right-wing ideology (including right-wing authoritarianism, social dominance orientation and general conservatism) suggests that:
omnivores exhibit greater right-wing authoritarianism than vegetarians
omnivores exhibit greater and social dominance orientation than vegetarians
omnivores exhibit greater conservatism than vegetarians
From vegetarian back to meat-eater
A 2018 study7 revealed an interesting detail about how conservatism predicts a greater likelihood of returning to eating meat after having been vegetarian. This is largely explained by lower feelings of social support and weaker social justice motivations (that is, less concern about animal welfare, the environment, and world hunger) when more conservative individuals initially decided to eschew meat.
Views about vegetarians
A 20178 and 2018 study9 both revealed that people who endorse right-wing ideology also tend to exhibit more negative attitudes toward vegetarians and vegetarianism in general.
Charity and pets
It’s not just political orientation that seems to vary between the two groups, moral attitudes and behaviours beyond political orientation also appear to differ between vegetarians and omnivores.
A 2015 study10 revealed the following differences:
vegetarians are more concerned about animal welfare than omnivores
vegetarians donate more money to animal-oriented charities than omnivores
vegetarians emphasise the moral foundation of animal harm/care more strongly than omnivores
A 201411 and 2018 study12 suggested that interacting with a pet during childhood may shape one’s moral values and eating behaviours later in life. Specifically, children who own a variety of pets or become emotionally attached to a pet tend to eat less meat in adulthood. This may be attributed to their greater feelings of empathy toward animals and greater moral opposition to animal exploitation.
Further research
The foregoing is merely a taste of the range of research currently taking place in this interesting field of study. Future research will be really interesting if it deals with some of the following areas:
how people revise their moral values after altering their dietary habits
whether veganism associates with certain moral/political values to greater extents than do other forms of vegetarianism
the effect on food choices of different political-ideology norms across various geographical and cultural regions
given that health, animal welfare and the environment are shown to be the three main motivators in becoming vegetarian, it would be interesting to know which of these would be the best predictor of continuing to eat a plant-based diet
variations in attitude and behaviour of individuals adhering to a WFPB diet, as compared to both a vegan and a vegetarian diet
changes in a person’s outlook and motivation for being plant-based from when they first made the dietary change and throughout their life
how vegetarians with varying types of health motivations (e.g. general wellness, weight maintenance, recently having had a life-threatening health event or diagnosis) may differ from one another
identification of the extents to which greater emphases on harm/care, animal welfare, and liberal values are causal of and/or caused by the decision to eschew meat
an examination of how omnivores view vegetarians with different motivations – looking at the roles of cognitive dissonance, social comparison, social norms, and power dynamics in attitude formation
Again, these are just some of the possible areas of future research.
Final thoughts
I suppose it’s no surprise that there’s an increasing amount of research into the psychology of those who choose to eat plants instead of animals; after all, we spend hours every day of our life planning, talking about, and eating meals, and the media are covering more and more stories about how our dietary choices are affecting both human health and the health of the world we live in.
It’s hard to deny, merely from my own experience, that we hold on to our familial and cultural food habits like a drunk does his last bottle – and we are pretty much all just as reluctant as he is to accept criticism about, or to let go of, our acquired preferences about what we can/cannot or should/should not put into our stomachs.
It doesn’t seem so strange that those brought up on a plant-based diet from birth may have a different attitude towards their dietary choices than those who made the personal decision to move from eating animals to plants. Equally, it’s probably no surprise that those who choose to disavow all animal products for reasons other than personal health or dietary preferences (that is, because they are concerned about the environment and/or animal cruelty) are likely to have wider-reaching and stronger views on the veggie subject.
In my own experience, there do appear to be some psychological changes that parallel dietary changes. Being that we are basically animals with big brains, and that the body-brain system is inextricably linked together, what would be strange would be if there were no psychological changes when our bodies and brains are receiving a different class of dietary nutrients – and this is apart from those changes that would derive from alterations in philosophical outlook.
Appendix: Just some of the literature relating to the psychology of vegetarians
Adams, C. (1990). The sexual politics of meat: A feminist vegetarian critical theory. New York, NY: Continuum.
Agarwal, U., Mishra, S., Xu, J., Levin, S., Gonzales, J., & Barnard, N. D. (2015). A multicenter randomized controlled trial of a nutrition intervention program in a multiethnic adult population in the corporate setting reduces depression and anxiety and improves quality of life: The GEICO study. American Journal of Health Promotion, 29, 245-254.
Allès, B., Baudry, J., Méjean, C., Touvier, M., Péneau, S., Hercberg, S., & Kesse-Guyot, E. (2017). Comparison of sociodemographic and nutritional characteristics between selfreported vegetarians, vegans, and meat-eaters from the Nutrinet-Sante study. Nutrients, 9, 1023.
Anderson, E. C., Wormwood, J. B., Barrett, L., & Quigley, K. (2018). Vegetarians’ and omnivores’ affective and physiological responses to food. Food Quality and Preference, 71, 96-105.
Apostolidis, C., & McLeay, F. (2016). It’s not vegetarian, it’s meat-free! Meat eaters, meat reducers and vegetarians and the case of Quorn in the UK. Social Business, 6, 267-290.
Arbit, N., Ruby, M., & Rozin, P. (2017). Development and validation of the meaning of food in life questionnaire (MFLQ): Evidence for a new construct to explain eating behavior. Food Quality and Preference, 59, 35-45.
Arora, A. S., Bradford, S., Arora, A., & Gavino, R. (2017). Promoting vegetarianism through moralization and knowledge calibration. Journal of Promotion Management, 23, 889-912.
Asanova, A. (2017). Vegetarian diet as a risk factor for depression. Psychosomatic Medicine and General Practice, 2, e020490-e020490.
Barthels, F., Meyer, F., & Pietrowsky, R. (2018). Orthorexic and restrained eating behaviour in vegans, vegetarians, and individuals on a diet. Eating and Weight Disorders – Studies on Anorexia, Bulimia and Obesity, 23, 159-166.
Beardsworth, A. D., & Keil, E. T. (1991). Vegetarianism, veganism, and meat avoidance: Recent trends and findings. British Food Journal, 93, 19-24.
Beardsworth, A. D., & Keil, E. T. (1992). The vegetarian option: Varieties, conversions, motives and careers. The Sociological Review, 40, 253-293.
Beezhold, B., Radnitz, C., Rinne, A., & DiMatteo, J. (2015). Vegans report less stress and anxiety than omnivores. Nutritional Neuroscience, 18, 289-296.
Bem, D. J. (1972). Self-perception theory. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 6, 1-62.
Bilewicz, M., Imhoff, R., & Drogosz, M. (2011). The humanity of what we eat: Conceptions of human uniqueness among vegetarians and omnivores. European Journal of Social Psychology, 41, 201-209.
Campbell T. C., & Campbell T. M. (2006). The China Study: The most comprehensive study of nutrition ever conducted and the startling implications for diet, weight loss and long-term health. Dallas, TX: Benbella Books.
Caviola, L., Everett, J. A., & Faber, N. S. (2018). The moral standing of animals: Towards a psychology of speciesism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. doi:10.1037/pspp0000182.
Cherry, E. (2015). I was a teenage vegan: Motivation and maintenance of lifestyle movements. Sociological Inquiry, 85, 55-74.
Chuter, R. (2018). Finding companionship on the road less travelled: A netnography of the Whole Food Plant-Based Aussies Facebook group (Bachelor’s thesis, Edith Cowan University).
Cliceri, D., Spinelli, S., Dinnella, C., Prescott, J., & Monteleone, E. (2018). The influence of psychological traits, beliefs and taste responsiveness on implicit attitudes toward plantand animal-based dishes among vegetarians, flexitarians and omnivores. Food Quality and Preference, 68, 276-291.
Cole, M., & Morgan, K. (2011). Vegaphobia: Derogatory discourses of veganism and the reproduction of speciesism in UK national newspapers. The British Journal of Sociology, 62, 134-153.
Corrin, T., & Papadopoulos, A. (2017). Understanding the attitudes and perceptions of vegetarian and plant-based diets to shape future health promotion programs. Appetite, 109, 40-47.
Cramer, H., Kessler, C. S., Sundberg, T., Leach, M. J., Schumann, D., Adams, J., & Lauche, R. (2017). Characteristics of Americans choosing vegetarian and vegan diets for health reasons. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 49, 561-567.
Črnič, A. (2013). Studying social aspects of vegetarianism: A research proposal on the basis of a survey among adult population of two Slovenian biggest cities. Collegium Antropologicum, 37, 1111-1120.
Dagevos, H., & Voordouw, J. (2013). Sustainability and meat consumption: Is reduction realistic?. Sustainability: Science, Practice, & Policy, 9, 60-69.
Dagnelie, P. C., & Mariotti, F. (2017). Vegetarian diets: Definitions and pitfalls in interpreting literature on health effects of vegetarianism. In F. Mariotti (Ed.), Vegetarian and Plant-Based Diets in Health and Disease Prevention (pp. 2-10). London, UK: Academic Press.
De Backer, C. J., & Hudders, L. (2014). From meatless Mondays to meatless Sundays: motivations for meat reduction among vegetarians and semi-vegetarians who mildly or significantly reduce their meat intake. Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 53, 639-657.
De Backer, C. J., & Hudders, L. (2015). Meat morals: Relationship between meat consumption consumer attitudes towards human and animal welfare and moral behavior. Meat Science, 99, 68-74.
de Boer, J., Schösler, H., & Aiking, H. (2017). Towards a reduced meat diet: Mindset and motivation of young vegetarians, low, medium and high meat-eaters. Appetite, 113, 387-397.
DeLessio-Parson, A. (2017). Doing vegetarianism to destabilize the meat-masculinity nexus in La Plata, Argentina. Gender, Place & Culture, 24, 1729-1748.
Derbyshire, E. J. (2017). Flexitarian diets and health: A review of the evidence-based literature. Frontiers in Nutrition, 3, 55.
Devine, C. M., Connors, M., Bisogni, C. A., & Sobal, J. (1998). Life-course influences on fruit and vegetable trajectories: Qualitative analysis of food choices. Journal of Nutrition Education, 30, 361-370.
Díaz, E. M. (2016). Animal humanness, animal use, and intention to become ethical vegetarian or ethical vegan. Anthrozoös, 29, 263-282.
Duchene, T. N., & Jackson, L. M. (2017). Effects of motivation framing and content domain on intentions to eat plant-and animal-based foods. Society & Animals. doi:0.63/5685306-34466.
Dyett, P. A., Sabaté, J., Haddad, E., Rajaram, S., & Shavlik, D. (2013). Vegan lifestyle behaviors. An exploration of congruence with health-related beliefs and assessed health indices. Appetite, 67, 119-124.
Earle, M., & Hodson, G. (2017). What’s your beef with vegetarians? Predicting anti-vegetarian prejudice from pro-beef attitudes across cultures. Personality and Individual Differences, 119, 52-55.
Edwards, S. (2013). Living in a minority food culture: A phenomenological investigation of being vegetarian/vegan. Phenomenology & Practice, 7, 111-125.
Ensaff, H., Coan, S., Sahota, P., Braybrook, D., Akter, H., & McLeod, H. (2015). Adolescents’ food choice and the place of plant-based foods. Nutrients, 7, 4619-4637.
Esquire. (2017, August 21). A huge number of vegetarians eat meat when they’re drunk. Esquire. Retrieved from https://www.esquire.com/uk/fooddrink/news/a16780/vegetarians-drunk-eating-meat/.
Fiestas-Flores, J., & Pyhälä, A. (2017). Dietary motivations and challenges among animal rights advocates in Spain. Society & Animals. doi:0.63/5685306-34484.
Filippi, M., Riccitelli, G., Falini, A., Di Salle, F., Vuilleumier, P., Comi, G., & Rocca, M. A. (2010). The brain functional networks associated to human and animal suffering differ among omnivores, vegetarians and vegans. PLoS One, 5, e10847.
Filippi, M., Riccitelli, G., Meani, A., Falini, A., Comi, G., & Rocca, M. A. (2013). The “vegetarian brain”: chatting with monkeys and pigs?. Brain Structure and Function, 218, 1211-1227.
Forestell, C. A. (2018). Flexitarian diet and weight control: Healthy or risky eating Behavior? Frontiers in Nutrition, 5, 59. doi:10.3389/fnut.2018.00059.
Forestell, C. A., & Nezlek, J. B. (2018). Vegetarianism, depression, and the five factor model of personality. Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 57, 246-259.
Forestell, C. A., Spaeth, A. M., & Kane, S. A. (2012). To eat or not to eat red meat. A closer look at the relationship between restrained eating and vegetarianism in college females. Appetite, 58, 319-325.
Fox, N., & Ward, K.J. (2008a). Health, ethics and environment: a qualitative study of vegetarian motivations. Appetite, 50, 422-429.
Fox, N., & Ward, K. J. (2008b). You are what you eat? Vegetarianism, health and identity. Social Science & Medicine, 66, 2585-2595.
Gallimore, T. E. (2015). Understanding the reasons for and barriers to becoming vegetarian in prospective vegetarians and vegans (Doctoral dissertation, McGill University).
Gilsing, A. M., Weijenberg, M. P., Goldbohm, R. A., Dagnelie, P. C., van den Brandt, P. A., & Schouten, L. J. (2013). The Netherlands Cohort Study–Meat Investigation Cohort: A population-based cohort over-represented with vegetarians, pescetarians and low meat consumers. Nutrition Nournal, 12, 156.
Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma: Notes on a spoiled identity. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. Graça, J., Calheiros, M. M., & Oliveira, A. (2015). Attached to meat? (Un)Willingness and intentions to adopt a more plant-based diet. Appetite, 95, 113-125.
Graça, J., Calheiros, M. M., & Oliveira, A. (2016). Situating moral disengagement: Motivated reasoning in meat consumption and substitution. Personality and Individual Differences, 90, 353-364.
Greenebaum, J. B. (2012a). Managing impressions: “Face-saving” strategies of vegetarians and vegans. Humanity & Society, 36, 309-325.
Greenebaum, J. (2012b). Veganism, identity and the quest for authenticity. Food, Culture & Society, 15, 129-144.
Greenebaum, J., & Dexter, B. (2017). Vegan men and hybrid masculinity. Journal of Gender Studies. doi:10.1080/09589236.2017.1287064.
Hartmann, C., Ruby, M. B., Schmidt, P., & Siegrist, M. (2018). Brave, health-conscious, and environmentally friendly: Positive impressions of insect food product consumers. Food Quality and Preference, 68, 64-71.
Haverstock, K., & Forgays, D. K. (2012). To eat or not to eat. A comparison of current and former animal product limiters. Appetite, 58, 1030-1036.
Hayley, A., Zinkiewicz, L., & Hardiman, K. (2015). Values, attitudes, and frequency of meat consumption. Predicting meat-reduced diet in Australians. Appetite, 84, 98-106.
Heiss, S., Coffino, J. A., & Hormes, J. M. (2017). Eating and health behaviors in vegans compared to omnivores: Dispelling common myths. Appetite, 118, 129-135.
Heiss, S., & Hormes, J. M. (2018). Ethical concerns regarding animal use mediate the relationship between variety of pets owned in childhood and vegetarianism in adulthood. Appetite, 123, 43-48.
Hibbeln, J. R., Northstone, K., Evans, J., & Golding, J. (2018). Vegetarian diets and depressive symptoms among men. Journal of Affective Disorders, 225, 13-17.
Hirschler, C. A. (2011). “What pushed me over the edge was a deer hunter”: Being vegan in North America. Society & Animals, 19, 156-174.
Hodson, G., & Earle, M. (2018). Conservatism predicts lapses from vegetarian/vegan diets to meat consumption (through lower social justice concerns and social support). Appetite, 120, 75-81.
Hoffman, S. R., Stallings, S. F., Bessinger, R. C., & Brooks, G. T. (2013). Differences between health and ethical vegetarians. Strength of conviction, nutrition knowledge, dietary restriction, and duration of adherence. Appetite, 65, 139-144.
Hornsey, M. J., & Jetten, J. (2003). Not being what you claim to be: Impostors as sources of group threat. European Journal of Social Psychology, 33, 639-657.
Horta, O. (2017). Discrimination against vegans. Res Publica. doi:10.1007/s11158-017-9356-3.
Hussar, K. M., & Harris, P. L. (2010). Children who choose not to eat meat: A study of early moral decisionmaking. Social Development, 19, 627-641.
Izmirli, S., & Phillips, C. J. (2011). The relationship between student consumption of animal products and attitudes to animals in Europe and Asia. British Food Journal, 113, 436-450.
Jabs, J., Devine, C. M., & Sobal, J. (1998). Maintaining vegetarian diets: Personal factors, social networks and environmental resources. Canadian Journal of Dietetic Practice and Research, 59, 183-189.
Jabs, J., Sobal, J., & Devine, C. M. (2000). Managing vegetarianism: Identities, norms and interactions. Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 39, 375-394.
Janssen, M., Busch, C., Rödiger, M., & Hamm, U. (2016). Motives of consumers following a vegan diet and their attitudes towards animal agriculture. Appetite, 105, 643-651.
Joy, M. (2009). Why we love dogs, eat pigs and wear cows: An introduction to carnism. San Francisco, CA: Conari Press. Judge, M., & Wilson, M. S. (2015). Vegetarian utopias: Visions of dietary patterns in future societies and support for social change. Futures, 71, 57-69.
Judge, M., & Wilson, M. S. (2018). A dual-process motivational model of attitudes toward vegetarians and vegans. European Journal of Social Psychology. doi:10.1002/ejsp.2386.
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A September 2018 review1 looked at whether the dramatic worldwide increase in cases of type 2 diabetes (T2DM – type 2 diabetes mellitus) could be slowed down if individuals made simple dietary changes rather than seeking solutions through medication.
Summary
The reviewers note that vegetarian diets are inversely associated with risk of developing diabetes, and this is independent of the positive association of meat consumption with diabetes development.
Range of diets
Vegetarian diets range* from:
vegan (no animal products)
lacto-ovo-vegetarian (no animal meat, but consumes milk and eggs)
*N.B. This review does not look at WFPB or non-SOS WFPB diets.
The most important aspects of any of these types of diets is the emphasis on:
whole grains
fruits and vegetables
legumes
nuts
reduction of saturated and trans fats
Problem – what problem?
Oh there’s a big problem, alright. Diabetes has now reached epidemic levels, with an estimated 451 million cases worldwide in 2017 – a number that is predicted 2 to increase to 693 million by 2045.
Where’s the evidence?
About 90% of diabetes diagnoses are type 2 (T2DM) – all of these appear to be lifestyle-related3 . Additionally, the lifestyle factor most linked to improvements in protection against, treatment of and cure for is diet – with the take-home facts being that animal foods encourage whist plant foods discourage T2DM 4 .
As countries develop a more Westernised diet (also known as the SAD or Standard American Diet), the rates of diabetes within those countries increases3 .
Omnivores vs Vegetarians
A diet differing from the typical Westernised diet is a vegetarian one. The results of changing to a vegetarian diet is clear. For instance, research 3 shows that vegetarians in the US have a lower prevalence of diabetes than omnivores (that is, those who consume both plant and animal foods, although much more of the latter than the former foods in the case of modern Westernised diets). Other research 56789 backs up the proposition that a vegetarian diet is significantly better for the prevention and treatment of diabetes than an omnivore diet.
To the heart of the matter
People with diabetes have a 2–4 times greater risk of suffering from CVD (cardio-vascular disease) 10 . Even those who just adhered to a lacto-ovo-vegetarian diet have been shown 11 to have significantly decreased CVD risk factors, specifically blood pressure, serum cholesterol, and blood glucose levels than those adhering to an omnivorous diet.
Another 2013 study12 examined ischaemic heart disease risk of vegetarians versus non-vegetarians in a large British sample of 44,561 individuals. They found that vegetarians had a lower BMI, non-HDL cholesterol, and systolic blood pressure than the non-vegetarians.
Other risks with diabetes
When looking at other diabetes risk factors and comorbidities, a 2015 study13 found that those adhering to a vegan diet supplemented with vitamin B12 had a significantly larger decrease in neuropathic pain 14 than the control group receiving just B12 supplementation.
A 1988 study15 examined patients who had diabetic neuropathy16 and renal failure who followed a vegan diet for 12 months found significant improvements in the following:
Okay, if you’ve eaten a vegetarian diet from childhood, you are less likely to have developed diabetes; but what if you’ve been stuffing in the eggs and bacon, doughnuts and cream cakes for most of your life – is it too late? Another 2018 study 18 found that adopting a vegetarian diet later on in life can greatly reduce diabetes risk, showing the benefits of using a vegetarian diet in an intervention. Other research studies 192021 show the same positive results of dietary changes later in life.
Medication vs diet
There’s also evidence 22232425 supporting the suggestion that adopting a vegetarian diet is more effective than at improving diabetes symptoms than traditional medication. Of course, packing in smoking and getting lots of exercise are also significantly important lifestyle factors that can prevent and treat diabetes.
Physical and mental benefits
A 2013 study26 looked at the psychological effects of adopting a vegetarian diet. The investigators assessed the following:
quality of life
eating behaviour
depressive symptoms
They divided diabetic subjects into vegetarian and non-vegetarian groups and found an increase in quality of life and decrease in depressive symptoms in the vegetarian group. Regarding dietary restraint, the vegetarian group was was able to show an increased ability to resist the ‘temptation’ to eat more food and more unhealthy food than the non-vegetarian group. This study showed that adopting a vegetarian diet has both physical and psychological benefits for T2DM patients.
Not all vegetarian diets are equal
Some vegetarians live on processed foods, crisps, chips and sweets. Some hate all vegetables (except fried white potatoes!) while others eat largely whole plant foods.
To examine the differences in type 2 diabetes risk of vegetarians who consume an unhealthy diet (characterised by refined grains, starchy foods, added sugars, low fruits and vegetables) or healthy diet (characterised by whole grains, fruits, vegetable, legumes), a 2016 review 27 categorised the latter as hPDI (a Healthful Plant-Based Diet) and uPDI (an Unhealthy Plant-Based Diet Index) in order to distinguish between healthy and unhealthy plant foods being eaten.
Thus, hPDI assigned positive scores to:
whole grains
fruits
vegetables
nuts
vegetable oils
tea and coffee
and reverse scores to:
fruit juices
sweetened beverages
refined grains
potatoes (white)
sweets
desserts
animal foods
The uPDI used the opposite approach.
The results were pretty clear: PDI and hPDI were inversely associated with T2DM, and the uPDI was positively associated with T2DM. This shows the benefit of following a vegetarian diet that is high in whole grains, vegetables, fruits, nuts, and legumes in preventing T2DM.
Study conclusions
The researchers in this September 2018 review1 drew the following conclusions:
the roleof all types of vegetarian diets in the prevention and treatment of diabetes is well established
clinicians and healthcare providers should feel confident in recommending a vegetarian diet to their patients who have pre-diabetes or T2DM
the type of foods that should be consumed while following this diet is critical to achieve the therapeutic effects
a vegetarian diet that is high in unhealthy foods such as refined grains, saturated fats, and added sugars is positively associated with T2DM
a vegetarian diet that is high in healthy foods such as whole grains, fruits, vegetables, nuts, legumes, and unsaturated fats is negatively associated with T2DM
Final thoughts
It’s pretty obvious to all reasonable people who’ve done even a bit of research that a significant solution to diabetes (prevention, management and cure) lies in simple dietary changes (as well as dropping the tobacco and picking up the weights instead).
However, while this review does look at different manifestations of vegetarian diets, it does not cover in detail how much more effective a completely WFPB (ideally a non-SOS WFPB) diet is when compared with the rest of the vegetarian offerings. Naturally, it hints at this through its mention of the above-mentioned 2016 review 27
If you look online or go to a vegetarian/vegan restaurant and look at what often goes into their recipes you will soon understand what I’m getting at. A quick glance at the menus of one vegan restaurant 28 local to me reveals the potentially unhealthy ingredients and cooking methods that can be both plant-based and unhealthy at the same time – ‘double fried chips and a pot of garlic mayo‘ and ‘Sticky Toffee Pudding served with a caramel glaze‘ will only offer limited assistance, if any, to diabetic customers looking for the healthy alternative to bangers and mash!
Of course, as evidenced in this review, going plant-based rather than relying on pharmaceuticals is a move in the right direction – but for the greatest protection against diabetes, a non-SOS WFPD has been shown repeatedly in additional research studies 2930 to trump the more watered-down veggie versions.
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